This text explores ways in which English grammar enables speakers and writers to represent the world, to interact with one another, and to create coherent messages.
Folse ISBN: The Workbook has exercises that carefully follow the sequence of material in the Handbook. This book teaches teachers how to present grammar lessons to their students with confidence and clarity. An invaluable resource helping teachers at all levels of experience to develop their understanding of English grammar. Author : Keith S. Relevant grammar terminology is explained. These objectives are for all teachers, whether they are teaching grammar directly or indirectly in a variety of classes -- including a grammar class, a writing class, a speaking class, an ESP class, or a K class.
With comprehensive presentation of form, meaning, and usage, along with practical exercises and advice on teaaching difficult structures, it is both a complete grammar course and an essential reference text. Each chapter includes a Typical difficulties section, which explores learners' problems and mistakes. Perhaps she leaves out a because there are already two words before the noun very interesting film. As in the case of tuberculosis she chooses the.
Perhaps she is influenced by expressions such as go to the cinema, the pub, etc. I 35 3 Quantifiers all another any both each either enough every few no several some Key considerations Choosing the correct quantifier is complicated, and learners often leave them out altogether or choose the wrong one.
Each time we use a noun we have to decide if a quantifier is necessary and, if it is, which one. This choice involves the meaning of what we want to express, a range of grammatical factors and also formality. Course materials usually introduce quantifiers systematically in small groups e. What are quantifiers? Like articles, quantifiers belong to the wider class of'determiner', i.
We can use noun phrases in a variety of sentence positions. How do we choose quantifiers? Types of noun Whether the main noun in the noun phrase is countable singular or plural or uncountable limits our choice of quantifier. Is the sentence affirmative, negative or a question? We choose some quantifiers mainly in affirmative statements i. Affirmative: I've got some time. Negative or question: I can't see any problem. Do you have any ideas? Course materials often suggest that this is a hard and fast rule, but as we see below there are many exceptions to this.
Formality How formally we are speaking or writing can affect our choice of determiner. Formal style Neutral or informal style Much interest was shown. A lot of interest was shown. They made little progress They didn't make much progress.
Position of the noun phrase in the sentence We use much and many at the beginning of an affirmative sentence in the subject , but generally avoid them in other positions. Much interest was shown. Meaning Meaning determines whether we choose a quantifier instead of an article, and which of the possible quantifiers we choose. Can you pass me the books? Both the meaning 38 I Quantifiers of this unstressed form and the kinds of sentence we can use it in are different from the stressed form see below.
I taught them some vocabulary. He's got some money. Compare He's got the money. I have some cigarettes. There are some eggs in the fridge. However, we can also use some in the subject of a clause. Some people came to see you. Some in offers and requests We can use some in offers even though the sentence is a question. Would you like some custard? We can also say: Would you like any custard?
In requests we have to use some. Could I have some sugar, please? Stressed some can suggest a restricted or limited quantity or type of something. I like SOME music. We use stressed some in questions and negative sentences as well as affirmative sentences. I can't eat SOME types offish.
We also use stressed some to emphasise that precise identity is irrelevant. In this case it is often followed by a singular noun. I spoke to SOME idiot in your front office. Do you know any good jokes? I won't bring any wine. Learners generally learn this use of any at elementary level, as the question or negative alternative to some e. I have some cigarettes; I don't have any matches.
We can use no instead of not He has no interest in education. He doesn't have any interest We tend to prefer no to not No students offered to help with the cleaning. I don't like ANY red wine. I think all red wine is horrible. You can take ANY book. The choice is entirely open. We use stressed any with singular as well as plural and uncountable nouns, and in affirmative sentences as well as negative ones and questions.
When we use any as part of the subject of a clause, it suggests unrestrictedness the particular identity is unimportant even if it isn't stressed. Any music would be better than this horrible noise! Much, many and a Jot of General use We use much, many and a lot ofto suggest a large quantity.
Do you need much space? I've lived here for many years. A lot of soft drinks contain sugar substitutes. I 39 40 I Quantifiers We use much with uncountable nouns and many with countable plural nouns. At elementary level we usually teach that we use much and many in questions and after negative forms ofthe verb although, as we see below, we can also use much and many in affirmative sentences. Uncountable: Do they have much money? I haven't got much time. Plural: Do you have many things still to do?
There weren't many trees left standing. At elementary level we generally teach a lot ofas a neutral, affirmative form for both plural and uncountable nouns. Plural: There are a lot ofpeople outside. Uncountable: They have a lot ofcharm. Much and many after so, too and how After so, too and how we use much before uncountable nouns and many before countable nouns. I've got so many things to do. You're wasting too much time. Tell me how many people have arrived.
Much and many in affirmative statements; a lot of in questions and negative statements We often use many in noun phrases that are the subject of an affirmative clause. Many people arrived early. There has been much research into effective group behaviour. We use a lot ofin questions and in negative statements to give extra emphasis to the amount. Do they have a lot offriends? I don't have a lot of time. Several, a few and a little We use several, a few and a little to suggest a small quantity.
Several implies more items than a few. Quantifiers I 41 I've sent out several cards but I've only received a few confirmations. We use several and a few with plural nouns and a little with uncountable ones. Few and little We use few and little without a to suggest a strong sense of reservation, with a hint of 'not enough'. Few people came. Not many people came. He didn't have much success.
We use more with both plural and uncountable nouns, while fewer is used only with plural nouns and less is generally used with uncountable nouns. All, each and every We use all, each and every to emphasise the 'completeness' of a group or class of things. We've considered all opinions. They defused each bomb. All wine contains alcohol. Every night was the same. All looks at things from a collective view and is followed by a plural or uncountable noun. Each and every have a more individual, one-by-one point of view, and are followed by a singular noun and verb.
Each and every are often interchangeable when they refer to three or more of something. We use every to refer to frequency and times. She had to greet every person in the room. We can use each but not every to refer to only two things. Did you examine each side of the coin?
Both either and neither 1 We use both, either and neither to refer to two people or things. Both looks at things from a collective view x andy. She betrayed both parents. Either looks at things from the point of view of alternatives x or y. You can choose either option. Both is followed by a plural noun both sides and either and neither by singular nouns and verbs.
Either dog is Neither parent has We use either in questions and negative statements. We use neither in formal and written English. In informal contexts, we often prefer not Unlike most quantifiers, both can immediately precede the or a possessive adjective e.
Enough We use enough to emphasise that a quantity is sufficient for some purpose. You haven't had enough lessons. We use enough with plural and uncountable nouns. I've been in enough hospitals to know. We're having another baby. We use another with singular nouns and with numbers followed by plural nouns.
Have another drink. I've got another three days. Overview The table below provides an overview of the grammatical considerations we take into account in choosing quantifiers.
All can immediately precede the or a possessive adjective. We use this to refer to two of something. It can immediately precede the or a possessive adjective. However, all and both can immediately precede the or a possessive adjective and in this case they are known as 'pre-determiners'. They welcomed both the speakers. All your students came. In this case the words are classed as pronouns rather than quantifiers.
Quantifiers in conversation In conversation, instead of constructing sentences beginning with a quantifier e. Many politicians Politicians, many ofthem can't be trusted. People in Britain, a lot ofthem long to live in warmer places.
Typical difficulties for learners Comprehension When learners don't know or don't notice quantifiers, this rarely leads to significant misunderstanding. Speaking and writing It is relatively easy for learners to learn the meaning of quantifiers, but more difficult for them to grasp and remember the grammatical restrictions that control their use. Quantifiers Leaving out quantifiers altogether Learners are particularly prone to leave out the more 'neutral' quantifiers e.
Other and another Confusion between other and another is very common. Speakers of European languages tend to use another in place of other. Speakers of non-European languages tend to do the opposite. Inappropriate use of any Learners sometimes use any in affirmative sentences instead of not I have any money.
Over-using quantifiers Learners also sometimes use two quantifiers together or a quantifier next to an article. Pronunciation: stressed and unstressed forms of some and any Learners sometimes stress some or any inappropriately, unintentionally suggesting an element of restrictedness.
This can give rise to damaging misunderstandings about attitude. For example, in the first ofthese examples the stress on some can give the impression that the speaker is only grudgingly allowing time. In the second example, the stress on any can make the question sound demanding or whining.
I've got SOME time to spare. Do you have ANY time to spare? Using much and many instead of a lot of Learners sometimes over-use much and many because they are concentrating on whether the noun is countable or uncountable, and they forget that they also need to consider whether the sentence is affirmative.
Countable and uncountable nouns Learners mistake uncountable for countable nouns and use many instead of much. I 45 46 I Quantifiers Singular-plural confusion Sometimes learners use plural nouns after each and every. Learners also sometimes want to use a singular form of the verb after a lot of. A lot ofappears to be singular, but this use is incorrect.
Quantifiers Consolidation exercises Language in context 1 The sentences that follow are from a lecture about managing change in education. What difference would this make, if any? European countries apart from Britain have gymnasia systems. Differences in meaning Look at the following sentences. Have you got some paint for concrete floors? I've searched through every drawer in the office.
I can't find it. I've searched through each drawer in the office. I've searched through all the drawers in the office. I can find neither of the books you told me to look for. I have no more strength. Has he scored many goals this season? He's got little sense. She was given many presents when she left her job. Many people congratulated her on her success.
They gave her a lot of opportunities. Much interest was shown in the project. Neither children are going to know about it. They invited all to visit them. Answers to consolidation exercises language in context 1 a The quantifiers are: all ii ; most iii ; eve! Conversely, all teachers have a fund All would also be possible since there is not enough context to show how many sides are involved, and many, a few, few, several and a lot of could also be used.
The context makes it clear that both is not possible. Many, a few, few, several and a lot of could be used here, but the sentence would then be ambiguous it could then be interpreted that Britain also has a gymnasia system, i.
If this sentence were read aloud, some would be stressed implying 'some but not all teachers'. Some stressed would also be possible, and would suggest a limited degree of pride. Quantifiers v a any b Every could also be used.
Any adds the sense of 'if any spiders appear'. Differences in meaning i a Both sentences are correct. However, many people feel that they use these two forms interchangeably. Other people feel that they might use some here because they are concerned with a restricted kind of paint for concrete floors.
Many people feel that the third sentence emphasises the completeness of the act, but it is still extremely close in meaning and effect to the other two sentences. Many people feel that the second is less likely to be used in spoken English.
Some people feel that the second is less likely to be used in spoken English. The second sentence suggests that he is lacking in sense i. The first sentence does not have this suggestion of insufficiency. Learners' English i a It is difficult to imagine any context in which this would sound natural or correct. Quantifiers iii a This use of many in a noun phrase functioning as the subject of the sentence is more natural than its use in ii , even though it is still more a feature of the written than the spoken language.
What are adjectives? Adjectives are often called 'describing words' because they provide information about the qualities of something described in a noun, a noun phrase or a noun clause. This text introduces the classic film 'Deliverance' to television viewers. The adjectives are printed in italics. John Boorman's provocative, violent and compelling thriller takes American poet James Dickey's novel to giddy heights of suspenseful stress and proves that Burt Reynolds can act. Central to the success of Boorman's culture clash nightmare, and what makes it resonate with such a rare intensity, is the powerful theme of red-blooded masculinity under hostile threat.
Adjectives related to nouns or verbs A lot of adjectives are closely related to nouns or verbs. Participle forms In the following examples boring and bored are parts of the verb to bore. Ami boring you? Boring is the present participle and bored is the past participle. Many adjectives have the same form as participles e. Multiword adjectives Multiword or 'compound' adjectives are made up of two parts usually connected by a hyphen. The second part of multiword adjectives is often a past participle form.
Adverb and past participle: well-liked, well-intentioned Noun and past participle: feather-brained, self-centred, people-oriented We also derive adjectives from multiword verbs e. In this case the first part is usually a past participle form e. Other multiword adjectives don't involve participle forms at all, e. His two-piece birds-eye suit is impressive, his blue shirt with its rounded collar immaculate, his thin, faintly European slip-on shoes impeccable.
Adjectives don't change before plural nouns. Superlative: Which city is the coldest in the United States?
Some adjectives have irregular comparative and superlative forms. Single adjectives There are. Before a noun When we use adjectives before nouns they are usually the last-but-one item in the noun phrase.
A few adjectives can only be used before a noun e. Apart from central, all the adjectives in the film review on p 51 come before the noun as part of the noun phrase.
After a noun or pronoun and verb We also use adjectives after nouns 'predicatively'. In this case we use a complement verb to link it to the noun or pronoun it qualifies. He is It s getting dark. When we use adjectives predicatively, they usually express the main point of the clause, and we can't leave them out.
A few adjectives e. She's asleep. We look at when adjectives can immediately follow nouns on p Learners sometimes appreciate more detailed guidance such as the table below however, precise information like this is only a rough guide and is not foolproof.
A terrifying, dark, gloomy clearing. We leave out commas when one adjective qualifies another. A pale blue vase. Linking adjectives with and In theory any number of adjectives can be used together, although most people avoid long strings of descriptive words, particularly in writing and particularly when they come before the noun. Adjectives I 55 Before a noun, we don't need to use a conjunction to separate the adjectives we put together. They came to a terrifying, dark, gloomy clearing in the wood.
However, after a noun or pronoun we have to use and before the last of two or more adjectives. She was cold and hungry.
She was cold, tired and hungry. We can choose to use and before the final item in a list of three or more adjectives used before a noun. In this case and emphasises the final adjective, and allows us to change the usual order of adjectives. They came to a dark, gloomy and terrifying clearing in the wood. These narrow down the meaning of the adjective, making it more precise. We can help learners in our teaching by grouping together adjectives not only according to their meaning but also according to the words which follow them.
Learners also need to develop the habit of using a good learners' dictionary such as Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary to check what can follow any particular adjective. Sometimes there is more than one possibility. A few adjectives can only be used if they are followed by a preposition, i. I'm fond ofhim. Things can be wet, cold, interesting or disappointing to different degrees; we can say something is quite wet, very wet or terribly wet.
Gradable adjectives include calm, flexible, happy, ill and jealous. A very irritating development. She's fairly certain. With these extreme and absolute 'ungradable' adjectives we use only intensifiers which stress the extreme or absolute nature of these adjectives, and we don't use downtoners.
He's utterly terrified. She's completely dead. Exceptional sentence positions ObjeCt- Learners often work hard to remember that adjectives have to come before nouns, and are then puzzled to discover that there are apparent exceptions to this rule. Don't He make 'left me angry. Here the adjective as complement describes something about the object. Ellipsis We also use adjectives immediately after nouns when we leave something out of the sentence i.
Adjectives Usually what we leave out is a relative pronoun e. This kind of ellipsis is particularly common after pronouns like something, someone, somewhere, sometime, and anything. You should wear something warm. Adjective phrases Learners may be particularly confused by cases such as the following description of a musician's piano technique, where adjectives seem to follow a noun: It has all the grip, technical and intellectual, that you would expect.
Here the adjectives form a phrase that extends the information in the noun, and can follow it examples like this may also be classified as 'verbless clauses'. Although at any level learners may come across and may need to understand examples like this, it is probably only at very high levels that we would want to teach them.
Typical difficulties for learners Comprehension If adjectives usually follow nouns in the learners' first language, they may need time and considerable exposure to English in order to become familiar with the usual sequence of information in English noun phrases adjectives before nouns. Even though they may know and be able to verbalise the 'rule', they may be wrong-footed by specific instances.
This may cause them difficulty in processing information, particularly in listening to English in reading, they have the opportunity to stop in order to study phrases and work out how information is ordered , and particularly when they come across a string of two or more adjectives before a noun. Speaking and writing Plural forms Learners may create a plural adjective form. This is particularly common among people whose first language has a plural form of adjectives. Sentence position Some learners often place adjectives after the noun where this is inappropriate in English.
This mistake is particularly common among learners whose first language places adjectives after the noun as a matter of course. Participle forms Learners may use a present participle form instead of a past participle.
Adjective order Learners may use adjectives in a sequence that native speakers would instinctively avoid. Combining adjectives Learners sometimes use conjunctions e. Learners may be confused by the fact that the rule is different according to whether or not the adjectives come before or after the noun.
Gradable and ungradable adjectives Learners may not know which adjectives we can and can't intensify. Adjectives and adverbs Learners may use an adverb form instead of an adjective. This mistake is especially common among learners whose first language makes no distinction between adjective and adverb forms e. Adjectives Consolidation exercises Language in context The passage which follows is from a novel. It describes London in the s from the point of view of someone who has just arrived in Britain, in winter, from India.
Read the passage and then answer the questions. She hated London - hated it at the very first sight of the foggy streets filled with drab crowds hurrying home, the shop windows glowing feebly in the misty twilight, the huge buses reduced to dim red rumbling shapes that seemed to appear from nowhere out of the smoke and fog.
She particularly hated this dingy, dark, ugly room, with its broken-down furniture and the hissing gas heater in the fireplace that went out if you forgot to keep enough shillings to feed into the coin slot.
She thought about struggling into a heavy skirt and cardigan and pulling on a pair of thick stockings: she hated the feel of wool against her skin. Her wool gloves, which she disliked even more, were suspended from a wire in front of the paleblue flames of the gas heater, drying from another hopeless morning of job hunting and giving off an odour which Queenie found loathsome.
Everything in England seemed to smell of damp wool, as if the entire population consisted of wet sheep. How much difference would this make to the description? What kind of difference? Account for its position in the sentence. Identify and explain any mistakes in the form and use of adjectives. I am a person very working-hard and seriously.
I am tall one metre thirty nine and I have blonds, longs hairs, blues eyes and a nose little and crooked. I like to wear clothes with brightly colours so you can always see me and easy to recognise my smilingly face. I wear make up with lips brightly reds and I am usually a character with passionately. I 59 60 I Adjectives Answers to consolidation exercises Language in context a The following are adjectives: foggy, drab, misty, huge, dim, red, rumbling, dingy, dark, ugly, broken-down, hissing, heavy, thick, pale-blue, hopeless, loathsome, damp, entire, wet.
Some grammars consider the following as adjectives: first, enough. The passage also contains a number of adjective-like forms. These include the participle forms filled, glowing, reduced and suspended, and the modifying nouns shop, coin, wool, gas and job.
It is the adjectives which, above all, create the pervasive feeling of drabness, dampness and cold. This feeling is arguably more important than the details. Broken-down is a past participle.
The final part of this sentence is a relative clause see Chapter 27 and the verb in this clause found is an object-complement verb. We understand the following: Queenie found the odour loathsome. None of the adjectives has a prefix. She uses the following after rather than before the nouns they refer to: these forms are written in a corrected version - very hard-working and serious person, a little crooked nose, bright red lips.
We need to use long, blond rather than blond, long general before specific. We would say a little crooked nose rather than little and crooked. We might also choose small rather than little to make it clear that this describes nose rather than crooked her nose is little and it is crooked; it is not a little crooked as opposed to very crooked. She mistakes the form of hard-working. She needs either to write it is easy to recognise We use measurements before adjectives - we say one metre 39 tall also three feet long; six centimetres wide etc.
Adverbs carefully wanly hopefully often soon there now yet very quite Key considerations The term 'adverb' refers to different kinds of words with quite different functions. For teaching purposes it is generally necessary to specify particular types of adverb e. Adverbs can occupy a range of positions in the sentence, and choosing where to place them is often a major problem for learners.
The meaning of certain adverbs e. What are adverbs? The popular definition of adverbs as words that 'modify a verb, an adjective or another adverb' is neither accurate nor very helpful. Whereas it is relatively easy to define and describe what a noun or an adjective is, we can only usefully define and describe different categories of adverb. It is sometimes helpful to think of 'adverb' as a 'dustbin' term- all the types of word that don't fit neatly into other categories such as noun, adjective, verb, preposition are lumped together as adverbs.
The following is a useful way of dividing adverbs: Manner: carefully, slowly Frequency: always, often, never Time and place: now, here Relative time: already, recently, soon Degree: extremely, rather, very Quantity: a lot, a little Focusing: even, also, only, particularly Attitude markers: apparently, fortunately Focusing adverbs and attitude markers can also be classified as discourse markers.
The adverbs in the text are printed in italics. Each of them is classified below so that you know how these terms are used in this chapter. Robin: Absolutely 1. Jealous squabbles were always 2 bursting out between us, and our parents could never 3 find a way of handling it successfully 4.
But because jealousy frightened and worried them so 6 much 7 , we never 8 got the chance of being properly 9 jealous, finishing it, going through it, and letting the feeling find its normal, natural place in our personalities. Still, I've learned from this, and nowadays 10 , when families I see complain of jealousy in their children despite the fact that they always ll cut the cake equally 12 with a ruler and give everyone penicillin when only 13 one child has a sore throat, I know what to do.
I usually 14 tell them that, though they are such a nice, successful family in many ways, they're obviously 15 not very 16 good at being jealous and need more practice before they come to see me next time. One-word textual discourse markers such as firstly, however and nevertheless are sometimes classified as adverbs. Some grammars don't use the term 'adverb' at all.
This chapter follows the way the term is used in most popular course books. We look at what specific adverbs and types of adverbs do on p In most cases the meaning ofthe adjectives and adverbs are very close. Adjective: He's a careful driver. Adverb: He drives carefully. The choices you make here will apply to your interaction with this service on this device.
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